A History of Architectural Planning in Ancient Rome

By: Janae Woolley

Introduction

One of the most important parts in the process of the realization of a building is in its drawings and plans. Specific methods for how this plan is communicated have changed over time, although there are key components that have always been included and remain to this day. While it is easy to look at what is used today, diving into history can be more of a mystery to discover what techniques were used. I set out to discover the main methods used to plan construction projects in ancient Rome and how each time period is similar and different from one another. By looking at examples of drawings, architectural writings, and modern guidelines, we can begin to develop an understanding of the most important components necessary to bring an idea to life. We can also see how the past has shaped the present and all the past has taught us.

I chose to look at three key time periods and architects throughout history. Vitruvius in the first century BC, Palladio in the 16th century AD, and modern times.

Vitruvius – 1st Century BCE

Vitruvius was an architect, author, and engineer who lived in Rome during the 1st century BCE. One of his most famous works is the architectural treatise De architectura (On architecture). This book was written in ten books that cover topics such as city planning, building materials, and civil and domestic buildings. Throughout his work, he emphasizes the importance of strength, utility, and beauty in all buildings. Looking into this book reveals the main focuses and themes of architecture from that time.

Sites

The first key component of a building that Vitruvius mentions is the site. Vitruvius understood that the climate would have a large impact on both the people living there and the materials in the area. He states “These variations in heat and the subsequent cooling off are harmful to the people living on such sites. The same conclusion may be reached in the case of inanimate things . . . We see this in the case of iron which, however hard it may naturally be, yet when heated thoroughly in a furnace fire can be easily worked into any kind of shape, and still, if cooled while it is soft and white hot, it hardens again with a mere dip into cold water and takes on its former quality” (Vitruvius, 25 BCE). Vitruvius gives the example of iron and its properties at different temperatures and compares it to humans’ energy levels at different temperatures. When planning a building or city, one must first consider where the location of the building will be.

Ratios

Throughout his work, Vitruvius often defines dimensions based on ratios. Ratios provided both strength and beauty. A proportional building will be pleasing to the eye, and by following the rules set out by Vitruvius, it would also be able to support itself. This provided a way for builders to ensure the stability of a building without planning all dimensions ahead of time. Vitruvius chose proportions that were not only stable but beautiful as well. One of the places Vitruvius looked to for inspiration of beauty was nature. He studied the proportions of the human body and eventually inspired the work The Vitruvian Man by Leonardo Da Vinci in 1490 (Giannini, 2016). During my time in Venice, I was able to visit the Da Vinci Interactive Museum Venezia there and view a copy of his work as shown in Figure 1.

He applied this knowledge of proportions and symmetry to his advice in the design of a temple. “Without symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the design of any temple; that is, if there is no precise relation between its members, as in the case of those of a well shaped man” (Vitruvius, 25 BCE). These ideals can be seen all over Rome, with one example being the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina located in the Roman Forum. I was able to witness the symmetry and beauty of this building firsthand as seen in Figure 2.

The front of the temple contains six columns with a doorway in the center. Every element of this temple is symmetrical with columns that are both beautiful and have supported the building for centuries.

Ratios in Columns

In his writing on temples, he goes into specific details on how the columns of the temple should be proportioned. Instead of using standardized units or measurements such as a meter, he describes a unit called the “module” which is defined as the width of the column at its base. All other measurements of the column would be based on this module. For example, “The thickness of the columns will be equal to one module . . . The columns themselves will be nine modules and a half in height. As a result of this division, the intercolumniations and the heights of the columns will be in due proportion” (Vitruvius, 25 BCE). These ratios could be easily adapted to any scale building.

Many of his motivations for the ratios of the columns stem from the symmetry and beauty but we know that these ratios also played a large factor in the stability of a column. A too-skinny column is not only ugly but less supportive than a thicker column. In Book III he states the following “For the thickness of the shafts must be enlarged in proportion to the increase of the distance between the columns. In the araeostyle, for instance, if only a ninth or tenth part is given to the thickness, the column will look thin and mean . . . On the other hand, in pycnostyles, if an eighth part is given to the thickness, it will make the shaft look swollen and ungraceful” (Vitruvius, 25 BCE). When the space between the columns is increased, there will be fewer columns causing the structure to be less sound. By ensuring the columns are not too thin, they maintained the structural stability of the building. Having these rules and proportions could have allowed them to include less detail in an architectural drawing and not include every dimension.

The principles of column proportions described can be seen all over Rome. One example is the Pantheon, the columns of which match the principles described by Vitruvius. Because the Pantheon was built around the same time that Vitruvius would have been writing De arcitectura, it is likely that one did not inspire the other but that both were inspired by the same existing principles and temples (Grasshoff, 2014). Regardless, when Gerd Grasshoff and Christian Berndt from the University of Berlin studied these columns and compared their dimensions with Vitruvius’ parameters, it was found that “with the exception of the corner columns, all the columns were designed according to the same principles” (Grasshoff, 2014). The spacing of the columns can be seen in Figure 3.

The beauty and strength of these columns are once again apparent with the vast tourism it attracts and its structural stability after so many years.

Materials

Vitruvius also understood the importance of choosing building materials. He gives insight into how to get the best quality in a variety of materials and also how each should be used. Here he speaks of the differences between stone found in Campania and Tuscany stating “Both are excellent in walls, but one is better to use for buildings on land, the other for piers under salt water” (Vitruvius, 25 BCE). I had the opportunity to visit a modern travertine mine in Lazio pictured in Figure 4. Each of these regions can be seen in Figure 5.

He also knew very well the properties of these materials stating “But travertine and all stone of that class can stand injury whether from a heavy load laid upon it or from the weather; exposure to fire, however, it cannot bear, but splits and cracks to pieces at once.” Knowing general rules for the usage of different materials would have also cut down on the amount of detail necessary for an architectural drawing. The builders would have known based on what part of the structure they were building which materials to choose.

Design

Rabun Taylor further discusses Vitruvius’ input on design. He states “Vitruvius tells us that design is manifested in three ways: ichnographia (floor plan), orthographia (elevation), and scaenographia (perspective drawing)” (Taylor, 2005). These are all key components of architectural design that are still seen today. While these were likely used on some building projects, Taylor also pointed out how there is evidence that some everyday buildings would have been designed on the spot using rules of thumb like the ratios discussed earlier. For example, “The Sanctuary of the Deified Trajan at Pergamon, it would seem, was surrounded on three sides by colonnades, the two lateral examples of which were adjusted in height after construction had begun in order to harmonize them with the back colonnade” (Taylor 2005). This correction in height would suggest that there was not a detailed plan ahead of time stating the height of each of these parts of the building.

Palladio – 16th Century AD

For an example of architectural drawings during the 16th century, we can look to Andrea Palladio, an extremely influential architect during the Renaissance. Palladio studied the architecture of ancient Rome and applied his findings to his designs. As Charles Hind, chief curator of collections at the Royal Institute of British Architects, says to BBC author Paul Kerley, “Palladio reinvented the architecture of antiquity for contemporary use” (Kerley, 2015). To do this, he started by studying ancient Roman architecture.

Baths of Trajan

One example of this is his work with the Baths of Trajan. The Baths of Trajan are located in the heart of Rome approximately a 500 meter walk from the Colosseum. The location can be seen in the map in Figure 6.

When I visited during my time in Rome, I was able to see how it has been turned into a park with many grassy pathways and a playground for children. While the ruins now are sparse and spread wide, with some imagination you could imagine them in their splendor. Informational posters throughout the park provide a reconstruction done by C. A. Leclerc of what the front of the building may have looked like (Figure 6). Palladio also drew a reconstruction of this perspective of the baths as part of his work. British art and archeological historian David Hemsoll points out that it is likely that these baths were already in ruins when Palladio set out to create designs of them. A copy of his drawing of the Baths of Trajan can be seen in Figure 8.

We can see how similar the two reconstructions were with minor differences in the arches in the front. In this drawing, we can also see key features of an architectural drawing such as section views and elevations. Visiting the ruins today, you can see the same domes, walls, and arches that Palladio drew. Examples of this can be seen in Figures 9, 10, and 11.

Figures 9, 10, 11. Ruins of the Baths of Trajan as visible today.

Along with his section view drawing, Palladio also created a detailed floor plan as seen in Figure 12. Previous detailed plans of the baths would not have been accessible to Palladio and he created a much more complex map of the layout than existed at the time. He likely used what was left of the original structure, the incomplete existing drawings, and his knowledge of other baths such as the Baths of Caracalla (Hemsoll, 2019). We can compare Palladio’s work shown in Figure 12 with the map currently displayed on site seen in Figure 13.

These floor plans are clearly very similar both showing the outer walls as well as the inner complex. The map in the park fills in some of the gaps left in Palladio’s drawing.

Residential Buildings

Palladio applied the style of ancient Rome in his work designing villas and other residential buildings. One example of this can be seen in his design of Villa Valmarana. Here he incorporated covered columned porches into domestic homes. This was unique because according to Kerley “Until then they had really only been used on religious buildings” (Kerley, 2015). Looking at his designs for Villa Valmarana, we once again see examples of floor plans (Figure 14) and a concept drawing of the front of the house (Figure 15).

Palladio’s floor plan is relatively simplistic showing only the walls and doorways and does not go into details of what would be included in the interior. We can also see that while there are some annotations on the floor plan, there are no extensive dimensions. We can see how Palladio represented the stairs in his floor plan and the annotations he added. His concept design of the front of the house shows the symmetry and the use of columns.

Modern Times

Looking at modern day architectural drawings, we can see many similarities to what was done in Vitruvius and Palladio’s times. Today many types of drawing go into a complete plan. These include site plans, floor plans, cross-sectional drawings, elevation drawings, and more (Henderson Architecture, 2021). We saw the concept of site planning with Vitruvius and his advice on choosing a location. We also saw examples of floor plans, cross-sectional drawings, and elevation drawings with Palladio. Today, these drawings might be done through computer software instead of by hand. These softwares can be extremely powerful and not only create 2D drawings but also 3D models, and allow multiple architects to collaborate on the same design. One example of this is the software Cedreo. Examples of drawings and models created by Cedreo can be seen in Figures 16 and 17.

Another key feature of modern-day architectural drawings is their conventions. A convention is an agreed-upon standard or way of doing something that helps to increase understanding between readers of the document. Just as the English language has conventions, architectural communication also has conventions. One example of this is the different types of lines on a drawing. An architectural drawing might include three types of lines: solid lines to represent seen outlines, dashed lines to represent hidden outlines, and long-short dashed lines to represent reference lines (Archimash, 2022). This is something that may not be obvious to an individual not involved in architecture, but these standards are well-known to anyone who will be working with these drawings. There are also standard symbols for features within a house. Examples of different types of doors and other symbols can be seen in Figures 18 and 19. It is also worth noting that the standard for stairs in a floor plan closely resembles the way that Palladio represented them in his floor plan in the 16th century.

By using these standard symbols, there is clear communication throughout the design and building process.

Conclusion

In conclusion, architectural drawings are an important part of the building process and have been for centuries. Looking at Vitruvius, Palladio, and modern times, there are key components and themes that are common throughout time. One example of this is floor plans. They have been mentioned as long ago as the 1st century BCE and it is easy to see why. Understanding the layout of a building and the orientations of the rooms is a crucial piece of information when designing and building a structure. Dimensions are another main detail necessary to the building process. Whether this is done through ratios and rules of thumb or by dimensioning everything in standard units, having a system will ensure everything fits together as intended. We also see the same factors taken into consideration now as then. The site of a building as well as the materials it is constructed out of will always be important. Even if now we know with much more detail a material’s properties such as elasticity and thermal expansion, there was an understanding of the limits of their materials back in Vitruvius’ time as well. Vitruvius and Palladio were both extremely influential architects of their times and their influence continues to be seen today.

Sources

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Grasshoff, Gerd, and Christian Berndt. “Decoding the Pantheon Columns.” Architectural Histories, vol. 2, no. 1, 20 June 2014, p. 18, https://doi.org/10.5334/ah.bl.

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Kerley, Paul. “Palladio: The Architect Who Inspired Our Love of Columns.” BBC News, 10 Sept. 2015, www.bbc.com/news/magazine-34143566.

“Palladio: A Complete Catalogue of Drawings in British Collections.” RIBA Architecture.com, 2024, www.architecture.com/explore-architecture/inside-the-riba-collections/palladio-a-complete-catalogue-of-drawings-in-british-collections?srsltid=AfmBOoq5br2xjuZcz-h1PZN4uLCKT98Ka5yEotmUK_nuxmQkFYl1vfp5. Accessed 17 Sept. 2024.

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